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Life Cycle Assessment Indicator – Land-Use

Jun 18 2013
By: Marc
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When we talk about bioplastics, natural fiber, or plant-based materials, our fifth indicator of our series is relevant….Land-Use.

Land-use, land-occupation

Land use refers to the functional dimension (i.e. use) and corresponds to the description of areas in terms of their socio-economic purposes – how the area is used for urban activities, agriculture, forestry etc. Another approach to land use is termed sequential, and it refers to a series of operations, particularly in agriculture, carried out by humans in order to obtain products and/or benefits through using land resources. Contrary to land cover, land use is difficult to “observe”. For example, it is often difficult to decide if grasslands are used or not for agricultural purposes. By the definition of IPCC (2007a) land use refers to the total arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land cover type (a set of human actions). The term land use is also used in the sense of the social and economic purposes for which land is managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction, and conservation).

Currently, land use related terminology is diverse, and the methodologies to assess the impacts of land use and land use change are still partly under development.

Land use is further divided into two separate categories in LCA terminology: land occupation and land transformation. The unit of this indicator is m2a/product.

The Figure below shows a possible quality alteration due to a defined land use: starting at a quality A in t1, an hypothetic land use change leads to a quality deterioration represented by the situation B in t2. During use, it is assumed, that the quality is constant. After the end of the use, the land quality can recover until reaching the situation C in t3.

After the use the land is able to increase its quality via renaturation or succession from B to C. Accordingly C displays the land quality after regeneration and is thus the reference situation for the calculation of occupation. Transformation is the quality difference of the land after use (C) and before the use (A).

Graphic shown the principle of land-use indicator

If you are interested in more detail about land-use indicators for LCA please refer to the report referenced below.

Reference: “Land use in life cycle assessment”, Tuomas Mattila, Tuomas Helin, Riina Antikainen et al. The Finnish Environment, 2011.

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Life Cycle Assessment Indicator – Ozone depletion

Jun 17 2013
By: Marc
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The fourth indicator in our series is the impact of Photochemical Ozone depletion, a well-known indicator in Life Cycle Assessment.

Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP)

Despite playing a protective role in the stratosphere, at ground-level ozone is classified as a damaging trace gas. Photochemical ozone production in the troposphere, also known as summer smog, is suspected to damage vegetation and material. High concentrations of ozone are toxic to humans.

Radiation from the sun and the presence of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons incur complex chemical reactions, producing aggressive reaction products, one of which is ozone. Nitrogen oxides alone do not cause high ozone concentration levels.

Hydrocarbon emissions occur from incomplete combustion, in conjunction with gas (storage, turnover, refueling etc.) or from solvents. High concentrations of ozone arise when the temperature is high, humidity is low, when air is relatively static and when there are high concentrations of hydrocarbons. Today it is assumed that the existence of NO and CO reduces the accumulated ozone to NO2, CO2 and O2. This means, that high concentrations of ozone do not often occur near hydrocarbon emission sources. Higher ozone concentrations more commonly arise in areas of clean air, such as forests, where there is less NO and CO.

With Life Cycle Assessments, Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) or Ozone Layer depletion is referred to in ethylene-equivalents (C2H4-Eq.). When analyzing, it’s important to remember that the actual ozone concentration is strongly influenced by the weather and by the characteristics of the local conditions.

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Life Cycle Assessment Indicator – Eutrophication

Jun 14 2013
By: Marc
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Have you heard about Eutrophication? This the third indicator in our series on Life Cycle Assessment Indicator.

Eutrophication Potential (EP)

Eutrophication is the enrichment of nutrients in a specific place. Eutrophication can be aquatic or terrestrial. Air pollutants, waste water and fertilizer in agriculture all contribute to eutrophication.

The result in water is an accelerated algae growth, which in turn, prevents sunlight from reaching the lower depths. This leads to a decrease in photosynthesis and less oxygen production. In addition, oxygen is needed for the decomposition of dead algae. Both effects cause a decreased oxygen concentration in the water, which can eventually lead to fish dying and to anaerobic decomposition (decomposition without the presence of oxygen). Hydrogen sulphide and methane are thereby produced. This can lead, among others, to the destruction of the eco-system.

 

On eutrophicated soils, an increased susceptibility of plants to diseases and pests is often observed, as is a degradation of plant stability. If the eutrophication level exceeds the amounts of nitrogen necessary for a maximum harvest, it can lead to an enrichment of nitrate. This can cause, by means of leaching, increased nitrate content in groundwater. Nitrate also ends up in drinking water.

Nitrate at low levels is harmless from a toxicological point of view. However, nitrite, a reaction product of nitrate, is toxic to humans. The causes of eutrophication are displayed in image above. The Eutrophication Potential is calculated in phosphate equivalents (PO4-Eq). As with acidification potential, it’s important to remember that the effects of eutrophication potential differs regionally.

Example of Eutrophication on Lake Taihu, Wuxi in China.

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Life Cycle Assessment Indicator – Acidification Potential

Jun 12 2013
By: Marc
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The second indicator of our series is The Acidification Potential, the environmental impact for LCA studies and well-known when we talk about acid rains.

Acidification Potential (AP)

The acidification of soils and waters occurs predominantly through the transformation of air pollutants into acids. This leads to a decrease in the pH-value of rainwater and fog from 5.6 to 4 and below. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide and their respective acids (H2SO4 und HNO3) produce relevant contributions. This damages ecosystems, whereby forest dieback is the most well-known impact.

Acidification has direct and indirect damaging effects (such as nutrients being washed out of soils or an increased solubility of metals into soils). But even buildings and building materials can be damaged. Examples include metals and natural stones which are corroded or disintegrated at an increased rate.

When analyzing acidification, it should be considered that although it is a global problem, the regional effects of acidification can vary. Figure below displays the primary impact pathways of acidification.

The Acidification Potential is given in Sulphur dioxide equivalents (SO2-Eq.). The acidification potential is described as the ability of certain substances to build and release H+ – ions. Certain emissions can also be considered to have an acidification potential, if the given S-, N- and halogen atoms are set in proportion to the molecular mass of the emission. The reference substance is Sulphur Dixoide.

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Life Cycle Assessment Indicator – Global Warming Potential

Jun 11 2013
By: Marc
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In the following posts, we will present several indicators used in Life Cycle Assessment.

First we will start with Global Warming Potential, used for the LCA as well as, Carbon Footprint.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

The mechanism of the greenhouse effect can be observed on a small scale, as the name suggests, in a greenhouse. These effects are also occurring on a global scale. The short-wave radiation from the sun comes into contact with the earth’s surface and is partly absorbed (leading to direct warming) and partly reflected as infrared radiation. The reflected part is absorbed by so-called greenhouse gases in the troposphere and is re- radiated in all directions, including back to earth. This results in a warming effect at the earth’s surface.

In addition to the natural mechanism, the greenhouse effect is enhanced by human activities. Greenhouse gases that are considered to be caused, or increased, anthropogenically are, for example, carbon dioxide, methane and CFCs. Figure below shows the main processes of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. An analysis of the greenhouse effect should consider the possible long term global effects.

The global warming potential is calculated in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq.). This means that the greenhouse potential of an emission is given in relation to CO2.   Since the residence time of the gases in the atmosphere is incorporated into the calculation, a time range for the assessment must also be specified. A time period of 100 years is usually customary.

 

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How Well Do You Know Bioplastics ?

Jun 10 2013
By: Marc
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People read and hear a lot about bioplastics, however do they really know a lot about bioplastic?

Below you can find the most common type of bioplastics. Commonly used types of bioplastics are based on cellulose, starch, glucose and oil. Specific techniques are then employed to convert these feedstocks into thermoplastic starch, polylactic acid (PLA), poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyamide 11 (PA11) and biopolyethylene (Bio-PE).

Starch

Today, thermoplastic starch, accounting for about 50 % of the global bioplastics market, is the most significant and widely used bioplastic. Applications of thermoplastic starch are bags, yogurt tubs, cups, plant pots, cutlery, diaper foil, coated paper and cardboard. Most of the starch derives from crops such as potatoes or corn.

PLA

PLA (polylactic acid) is by far the most promising bioplastic for the near future. Its characteristics resemble conventional fossil fuel based plastics such as PE, PP and PET. It can easily be processed on manufacturing facilities that already exists for the production of common petrochemical based plastics – no further industrial investments are required. PLA is mostly produced by the fermentation of starch from crops, commonly corn, wheat or sugarcane into lactic acid followed by subsequent polymerization.

Its blends have a wide range of applications including computer and mobile phone casings, biodegradable medical implants, foil, moulds, tins, cups, bottles and packaging devices.

Polylactic-acid packaging

PLA is a very versatile bioplastic. By varying composition and quality it can be designed to biodegrade quickly or last for years. Additionally, PLA possesses an extraordinary stability, as well as an extremely high transparency. However, PLA also has a significant disadvantage. The plastic softens at a temperature of about 140°F (60°C), which limits its application for the production of packages for hot drinks and food. Copolymerisation with heat resistant polymers and the addition of fillers overcome these drawbacks.

A barrier for wider application is still the high cost of production. While the feedstock for conventional thermoplastics like PE costs about 1300$ / ton the expense for lactic acid for the production of PLA is about 1700 $ / ton – significantly higher. But as the price for crude oil is constantly rising and improved PLA manufacturing methods are developed, the difference in prices becomes continuously smaller.

PHB

The bio-polyester: poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is generally produced by bacteria processing glucose or starch. Its characteristics are similar to those of the fossil crude oil derived plastic polypropylene.

The production of PHB is currently expanding. Companies worldwide, especially the South American sugar industry, either begin production of PHB or enlarge their existing production capacity, which would most likely result in a price reduction to fewer than 6.5 $ / kg (this would still be about 4 times the market price of polyethylene). PHB is distinguished from most other currently available biodegradable plastics primarily by its physical characteristics such as the insolubility in water and its resistance to hydrolytic degradation. It produces transparent film at a melting point of 350°F (175° C), and is biodegradable without residue. PHB is probably the most common type of a substance class termed as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), but also many other polymers of this polyester class are produced by a variety of organisms.

PA 11

A biopolymer derived from natural oil is polyamide 11 (PA 11). This polyamide bioplastic is also known under the trade name Rilsan. Although, PA 11 derives from renewable resources (castor beans) it is not biodegradable.

It is used in high-performance applications such as automotive fuel lines, pneumatic airbrake tubing, electrical anti-termite cable sheathing, oil and gas flexible pipes and control fluid umbilicals, sports shoes, electronic device components and catheters.

Electrical flexible cable with polyamide 11 (PA11)

Bio-PE

Polyethylene (PE) is generally known as a fossil based polymer. However, it can simply be converted form bioethanol (by dehydration) which is produced in large scale by fermentation of agricultural feedstocks such as sugar cane or corn. Bio-polyethylene is chemically and physically identical to traditional polyethylene – it does not biodegrade but can be recycled. In a near future we can also have a Bio-PP.

Bio-Resin

An additive to other plastics materials and/or bioplastics. Based on minerals, bio-minerals.  BioFina is classified as this material.

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Greenwashing or Not ?

Jun 03 2013
By: Marc
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Being green and a eco-friendly company is an important objective nowadays. Greenwashing refers to  an environmental claim which is unsubstantiated (stretching the truth) or irrelevant (a distraction). “Green” claims can be found in advertising or on packaging, and made about people, organizations and products. Greenwashing is an old concept and has been around quite some time. An agency called Futerra from United Kingdom has publish a Greenwashing Guide, helping to show guidelines on correct claims that can be made.   Futerra specialized in sustainability communications.

A few of their examples are shown below.

Example of Greenwashing:

Obvious lies: You can’t erase your carbon footprint when you take a flight, because it uses kerosene, a non-renewable resource.

Over the top images: Bring a “green touch” to your image can mislead the consumer

Fluffy language: A company needs to be clear and precise in their eco-friendly message.

No certified labels: There are a lot of Green labels, but only certified by third-party labels are acceptable. Some companies use their own labels to appear to be green.

Example of good claims:

Gives you an “honest” feeling: too much written without delivering a correct and clear message to the consumer.

A recognized third-party label: claims that “products are relevant” and certified by third-part.

Lots of specific details: This Company gives you an overview of their product and their efforts to be eco-friendly. It is precise and easy to understand by everyone with relevant green messages.

Now you can see the difference between true green messages and Greenwashing.  Even with Greenwashing happening, most companies are making good efforts to be or try to be sustainably correct.

What examples of Greenwashing do you have?  Please send us your examples.

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Transition temperature of plastics ?

May 30 2013
By: Marc
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Polymers are a long chain of molecules and with larger chains that include thermosets, elastomers and thermoplastics (well-known as plastic).

Thermoplastics have 2 different types of structures; amorphous and crystalline structures, both structures part of the same thermoplastic:

If thermoplastic plastic material has a high concentration of polymers with amorphous structures, the material will have poor resistance to weight loads, however have excellent elasticity.  Contrary, if the thermoplastic plastic material has a high concentration of polymers with crystalline structures, the material will be very strong, stronger than thermoset materials, however with little elasticity plastic become brittle.

Most important temperature transitions in thermoplastic:

Melting temperature (Tm): this temperature references the crystalline structure, it is the state change between rubberize state to a liquid state.

Glass transition temperature (Tg): A temperature at which amorphous part polymers undergo a transition from rubberized, viscous liquid, to a brittle, glassy amorphous solid when cooled.

Under glass-transition temperature molecules have little relative mobility. The scale of around 5ᵒC (±10ᵒF) transition.

For example, the table below represent the most common thermoplastic transition temperatures:

 

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How much plastic is around your house ?

May 28 2013
By: Marc
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How much plastic do you have in your home? Plastic you can reach out and touch right now? At the office for example, one product would be your computer screen. Looking at my desk now, I can also count my keyboard, my mouse, my phone, my reusable coffee cup and my belt. The more I look around, the more plastic I see in my daily life. Can we live without plastic?

An American family with their plastic products.
 
Undeniably we live in an age of plastic. Plastic can be found in every corner of our daily lives, from electronics to food packaging to the interior of our walls. It’s also found in surprising commodities like gum, face wash, kitchen sponges, and many more household items.

Many people think plastic products are bad for our health and the environment and that plastic should be banned.  Let’s not forget that plastic has also greatly improved food safety and the daily comfort in our lives.  It is durable, versatile, and very convenient to use.

Replacing your plastic products by non-plastic products could be unhealthier than and not as beneficial for the environment as you might think. Plastic is one of the biggest innovation of last decades. Plastic is not going away, we need to make it better, and moving towards green plastic, with research and technologies are the future of plastic.  Sustainable plastics and eco-friendly for our future. Bioplastics can be used for many applications and the primary solution for many plastic products today. We can even keep plastic based on petroleum only for high-tech applications which need extreme high performance factors.  Making a better plastic also needs better consumer education on the correct disposal procedures that enable plastic to be more sustainable and better for our environment.  Learning the best way to dispose of plastics so we are actively practicing recycling and other necessary waste removal procedures.

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5 Stages of the Plastic Recycling Process

May 23 2013
By: Marc
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Plastic recycling, a term given for processing waste plastic, turning old or scrap plastic into  useable products that can re-enter the manufacturing chain. In order for plastic to be suitable for re use in the manufacturing environments, for example injection molding, company waste or scrap plastic must go through several recycling processes.

Stage 1: Sorting the plastic

To have success with this stage, it is very important for the consumer to learn the correct disposal procedures for their trash, and do all pre-sorting necessary. For example, you can take out the corks of bottles, caps or lids, making it easier for machinery to sort waste. Plastic waste needs to be collected by the recycling company, once the plastic arrives at the recycling plant the first stage begins to sort the plastic into the specific types.  Plastic recycling is more complex than metal or glass recycling because of the many different types of plastic that exists.  In addition, mixed plastic cannot be used in manufacturing without delivering a poor quality product, therefore reasons why plastic recycling companies need to be thorough with its sorting methods, sorting plastic waste into different categories before going to the next stage in the recycling process.

Stage 2: Washing Waste Plastic

Once plastic waste has been identified and separated into one of its many forms the cleaning process can begin, this usually starts with washing to remove paper labels, adhesives and other impurities, all the labels on your plastic containers, bottles and even your wheelie bin need to be completely removed as these will lower the quality of the finished recycled plastic.

Stage 3: Shredding the Plastic

The shredding stage is when plastic waste is taken and loaded onto conveyor belts or directly into huge hoppers that funnel the clean scrap towards rotating metal teeth that rip the plastic into small pellets which are bagged up afterwards ready for testing.

Stage 4: Identify and classify the Plastic.

Once the shredded plastic has been bagged it is then chemically tested and labelled as to its exact specification, this rGrade of plastic can be used to add to a mix of virgin plastic in the manufacturing run, alternatively the rGrade plastic can be further recycled.

Stage 5: Extruding

This is the final stage in the recycling process of plastic.  This process involves melting clean shredded plastic and extruding into the form of pellets which then go onto manufacturing the next lot of plastic products.

Reasons to Recycle Plastic

Millions of tons of plastic waste end up in landfill when the vast majority of it can be recycled, it’s all too easy for us to throw away trash without a second thought but we need to take care of our planet and not just reduce the amount of trash we bury, but also given that plastic is derived from oil a natural product with ever depleting resources, it makes sense to recycling as much as possible. Recycled products are becoming more popular and important and are growing every day, as oil exploration moves to ever more hostile and difficult to reach locations, which will of course will result in prices of products made from oil to increase.

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